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Roman conquest of Hispania

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The Roman conquest of Hispania was a historical period that began with the Roman landing at Empúries in 218 BC and ended with the Roman conquest of the Iberian Peninsula, then Hispania, by Caesar Augustus in 17 BC.

Long before the First Punic War, between the 8th and 7th centuries BC the Phoenicians (and later the Carthaginians) had already appeared in the southern part of the Iberian Peninsula as well as in the East, to the south of the Ebro. Their numerous commercial settlements based throughout these coastal strips provided an outlet into Mediterranean commerce for minerals and other resources of pre-Roman Iberia. These installations consisting of little more than warehouses and wharves allowed not only exports, but also the introduction to the Peninsula of products manufactured in the Eastern Mediterranean. This had the indirect effect of the native peninsular cultures adopting certain Eastern characteristics.

During the 7th century BC, the Greeks established their first colonies on the northern Mediterranean coast of the peninsula. Setting off from Massalia (Marseille) they founded the cities of Emporion (Ampurias) and Rhode (Roses), although at the time they had already spread throughout the coastal commercial centers of the region without establishing a permanent presence. Part of this Greek commerce was nevertheless carried out by Phoenician shipping; Phoenician trade in the peninsula included articles both coming from and heading to Greece. As a commercial power of the Western Mediterranean, Carthage expanded its interests to the island of Sicily and the south of Italy. This growing influence over the region soon proved to be an annoyance for Rome. This conflict of commercial interests ultimately led to the Punic Wars of which the First Punic War ended in an unstable armistice. The mutual hostility led to the Second Punic War, which, after twelve years of conflict, resulted in effective Roman domination of the south and east of the Iberian Peninsula. Later, a decisive defeat for Carthage at Zama would wipe that city from the historical scene.

Despite having vanquished their rival Mediterranean power, the Romans still took another two centuries to bring the entire Iberian Peninsula under their control through an expansionist policy that earned the enmity of practically all of the tribes of the interior. The abuses to which these people were submitted is considered to be responsible for the strong anti-Roman sentiment throughout these nations. After years of bloody conflict, the indigenous people of Hispania were finally crushed by the military and cultural heel of Rome, thus disappearing from the face of history.



[edit] Carthaginian Iberia

After the First Punic War, the Carthaginian family descending from Hamilcar Barca began the effective subjugation of Hispania which would extend over the greater part of the south and the west of the peninsula. This subjugation was achieved through tributes, alliances, marriages or simply by force. The peninsula would go on to supply Carthage with a significant number of troops — both mercenaries and draftees — that assisted in its confrontations with Ancient Rome as well as its reaffirmation of dominance over Northern Africa. The Romans considered this sufficient motive to invade Hispania. The Ilergetes (from Northeast Hispania) and the legendary Baleric Slingers particularly stood out amongst these troops coming from diverse tribes of the region.

[edit] The Sagunt Matter

The Second Punic War between Carthage and Rome was ignited by the dispute over the hegemony of Sagunt, a hellenized coastal city and Roman ally. After great tension within the city government culminating in the assassination of the supporters of Carthage, Hannibal laid siege to the city of Sagunt in 218 BC. The city called for Roman aid, but the pleas fell on deaf ears. Following a prolonged siege and a bloody struggle in which Hannibal himself was wounded and the army practically destroyed, the Carthaginians finally took control of the city. Many of the Saguntians chose to commit suicide rather than face the subjugation and slavery that awaited them at the hands of the Carthaginians.

The war later continued with Hannibal's expedition to Italia. The damage wrought throughout the Italian Peninsula by this expedition provoked the Romans to invade the Iberian Peninsula in an attempt to cut off Hannibal's supplies coming from Hispania and Carthage.

[edit] The Roman invasion

Roman wall of Ampurias, initial entry point of Rome to the Iberian Peninsula

Rome sent troops under the command of Gnaeus and Publius Cornelius Scipio. Gnaeus was the first to arrive in Hispania while his brother Publius turned towards Massalia with the goal of obtaining support and trying to halt the Carthaginian advance. Emporion, or Empúries, was the point where Rome began on the peninsula. Their first mission was to find allies among the Iberians. They signed treaties of alliance with Iberian tribal leaders on the coast but probably did not obtain support for their cause among the majority. One known example was the tribe of the Ilergetes, one of the most important north of the Ebro, who were allied with the Carthaginians. Gnaeus Scipio subjugated these tribes, either by treaty or through the forces of the coast north of the Ebro, including the city of Tarraco, where Gnaeus made his residence.

[edit] The war between Carthage and Rome

The first important conflict between the Carthaginians and the Romans took place in Cissa in 218 BCE, probably near Tarraco, although it has been tried to identify it as Guissona in the present-day province of Lleida. The Carthaginians, commanded by Hannonn were defeated by Roman forces commanded by Gnaeus Cornelius Scipio Calvus. The leader of the Ilergetes Indíbil, who fought with the Carthaginians, was captured. But when Gnaeus' victory was certain, Hasdrubal Barca arrived with reinforcements and dispersed the Romans but did not defeat them. The Carthaginian forces returned to their capital of Cartago Nova (now Cartagena) and the Romans to their primary base at Tarraco.

In 217 BCE, Gnaeus' fleet vanquished Hasdrubal Barca's on the mouth of the Ebro. Shortly afterward, reinforcements arrived from Italy under the command of Publius Scipio and the Romans were able to advance on Saguntum.

Gnaeus and Publius Scipio are attributed with the fortification of Tarraco and the establishment of a military port. The city wall was probably constructed over the front of an ancient wall; the marks of the Iberian stonemason can be appreciated, since the wall was constructed by hand.

In 216 BCE Gnaeus and Publius Scipio fought the Iberians, probably against tribes south of the Ebro. The Iberian attacks were repelled.

In 215 BCE the Carthaginians received reinforcements under the command of Himilco and fought again on the mouth of the Ebro, apparently near Amposta or Sant Carles de la Ràpita in the so-called Battle of Ebro River. The Roman fleet was victorious.

The rebellion of Syphax in Numidia required Hasdrubal to return to Africa with his best troops (214 BCE), leaving his camp in Hispania to the Romans. In Africa, Hasdrubal secured the assistance of another Numidian king, Gala, lord of the region of Constantine. With the help of Gala and his son Masinissa, Hasdrubal defeated Syphax.

In 211 BCE, Hasdrubal Barca returned to Iberia accompanied by Masinissa and his Numidian warriors.

Perhaps between 214 BCE and 211 BCE, Gnaeus and his brother Publius Cornelius Scipio overran the Ebro. We know for certain that in 211 BCE the Scipio brothers counted among their army a strong contingent of Celtiberian mercenaries, composed of some thousands of combatants. The Celtiberians frequently acted as soldiers of fortune.

The Carthaginian forces were structured into 3 armies, commanded respectively by Hasdrubal Barca, Mago Barca, and Hasdrubal Gisco, the last son of the Carthaginian commander Hannibal Gisco, killed in the First Punic War. For their part, the Romans organized themselves into another three groups, commanded by Gnaeus and Publius Scipio, and also by Titus Fonteius.

Hasdrubal Gisco and Mago Barca, supported by the Numidian Masinissa, vanquished Publius Scipio and killed him. Gnaeus Scipio had to retreat to the desert with his Celtiberian mercenaries to whom Hasdrubal offered a sum greater than that paid by Rome. Gnaeus died during the withdrawal and the Carthaginians were at the point of crossing the Ebro River when an official named Gaius Marcius Septimus, elected general by the troops, repelled them. The circumstance of this battle is uncertain but we know that Indibil fought again against the Carthaginians. The battle took place in 211 BC.

In 210 BC an expedition under Gaius Claudius Nero was able to capture Hasdrubal Barca but he went back on his word and retreated dishonorably.

Scipio Africanus

The Roman Senate decided to send a new army to the Ebro to prevent the Carthaginian army from crossing into Italy. Leadership of this force was given to Publius Scipio, the son of the general of the same name who had died in combat in 211 BC.

Publius Scipio (the younger) arrived in Hispania accompanied by Marcus Silanus (who would succeed Claudius Nero) and his advisor Caius Lelius, chief of the group.

Upon his arrival the three Carthaginian armies found themselves in this situation: Hasdrubal Barca's army was in the area around the origin of the Tajo; the army of Hasdrubal, son of Gisco, was situated in Lusitania near modern Lisboa; and Mago's army was in the area near the Strait of Gibraltar.

Publius Scipio in an audacious move, left the camp on the Ebro, and attacked Carthago Nova by land and sea. The Punic peninsular capital was given an insufficient defense force under the command of a new leader who was also called Mago, had to surrender, and the city was occupied by the Romans. Publius Scipio returned to Tarraco before Hasdrubal could move out of his camp on the Ebro.

After this daring operation, a large part of Hispania Ulterior was subdued by Rome. Publius Scipio attracted various Iberian chiefs until then allied with the Carthaginians, such as Edeco (an enemy of Carthage since his wife and children were taken as slaves), Indibil (for the same reason), and Mandonius (who had been attacked by Hasdrubal Barca).

In the winter of 209 and 208 BC Publius Scipio advanced south and collided with the army of Hasdrubal Barca (who at the time was advancing north) near Santo Tomé in the hamlet of Baecula where the Battle of Baecula took place. Publius Scipio is said to have won (which is doubtful), but if that was the case, he did not prevent Hasdrubal Barca from advancing to the north with most of his troops. In his northern advance, Hasdrubal arrived at the passes of the western Pyrenees.

So it is known that Hasdrubal crossed the Pyrenees through the country of the Basques. He probably tried to make an alliance with them, and in this case, the Basques lacked the means to oppose the Carthaginian advance. Hasdrubal camped in the south of the Galias and later passed into Italy (209 BC).

In 208 BC Mago Barca retreated with his forces to the Balearic Islands and Hasdrubal Gisco supported him in Lusitania.

In 207 BC the reorganized Carthagians and their reinforcements left Africa under Hannon's leadership managing to recover most of the south of the peninsula. After Hannon subdued this region, Mago returned with his forces and met with Hasdrubal Gisco. But soon after Hannon and Mago were defeated by the Romans led by Marcus Silanus. Hannon was captured, and Hasdrubal Gisco and Mago had to fortify their armies at the most important places.

Hasdrubal Gisco and Mago Barca received new reinforcements from Africa in (206 BC), and for their part recruited an army of natives. They gave battle to the Romans at Ilipa (modern Alcalá del Río in Sevilla province), but on this occasion Publius Scipio Africanus clearly obtained victory. Mago and Hasdrubal Gisco took refuge in Gades, and Publius Scipio gained control over the entire south of the peninsula. He could cross to Africa and meet the Numidian king Syphax who had visited him in Hispania.

Publius Scipio fell ill, which was taken advantage of by the army as an opportunity to demand higher wages. This in turn was taken advantage of by the Ilergetes and other Iberian tribes who rebelled under the leadership of the chiefs Indibil and Mandonius (of the Ausetani). This rebellion was essentially against proconsuls L. Lentulus and L. Manlius. Publius Scipio appeased the mutineers and put down a final bloody revolt by the Iberians. Mandonius was caught and executed (205 BC); Indibil managed to escape.

Mago and Hasdrubal Gisco abandoned Gades with all of their ships and their troops to support Hannibal in Italy, and after the departure of these forces, Rome held the entire south of Hispania. Rome now ruled from the Pyrenees to Algarve along the coast. Roman dominance reached Huesca and from there, the Ebro to the south and the sea to the east.

[edit] The wars of conquest

From 197 B.C. onward, the part of the Iberian Peninsula that fell under Roman control was divided into two provinces: Hispania Citerior to the north (the future Hispania Tarraconensis with Tarraco as its capital) and Hispania Ulterior to the south with capital Córdoba. The two provinces were governed by two biannual proconsuls. In the same year of 197, the Citerior province was the scene of a rebellion by the Iberian and Ilergete communities. The Proconsul Quinto Minucio had considerable difficulty controlling those rebellions. The Ulterior province escaped Roman control when its governor died as the local turdetano people were rebelling. In 195 B.C., Rome was forced to send the consul Marcus Cato. He arrived in Hispania to find the Citerior province in full rebellion with Roman forces controlling only a few fortified cities. Cato quelled the rebellion in summer of the same year and reestablished control over the province, but he failed to endear himself to the natives or Celtiberians who acted as paid mercenaries for the turdetanos. After making a show of force by passing the Roman legions through Celtiberian territory, Cato convinced them to return to their homes. However, the natives' submission proved superficial because when rumors spread that Cato would soon depart for Italy, the rebellion reignited. Cato acted decisively once again, conquering the rebels and selling the instigators off into slavery. The native population was totally disarmed. Cato returned to Rome with great fanfare from the Roman Senate. He brought with him an enormous war chest of over 11,000 kilos of silver, 600 kg of gold, 123,000 denarii, and 540,000 silver coins, all of which was taken from the Hispanic peoples in the course of his military actions. He fulfilled his promise to Rome before beginning the campaign that "the war will pay for itself."

A later proconsul of Hispania, Marcus Fulvius Nobilior, would fight other rebellions as well.

The next major Roman step was the conquest of Lusitania with two crushing victories: one in 189 B.C. won by proconsul Lucius Aemilius Paulus, and a more dubious one by the pretor/proconsul Caius Calpurnius in 185.

The central region of the peninsula, called Celtiberia, was officially conquered in 181 B.C. by Quintus Fabius Flaccus. He bested the local Celtiberian people and claimed control of several territories. But the real work was done by Tiberius Sempronius Gracchus from 179 to 178 when he conquered thirty cities and villages. He took some by sheer force and others by exploiting rivalries between the Celtiberians and the Vascones to the north. His alliances with the Vascons would facilitate the Roman domination of Celtiberia.

By this time, some of the Basque cities and villages may have already been subject to Rome, but at any rate a significant number of Basque holdings came into the Roman Empire voluntarily through alliance. Tiberius Sempronius Graccus founded a new city named Gracurris on top of the existing city of Ilurcís (probably the modern-day Alfaro in La Rioja or Corella in Navarre). It was built of standard Roman construction and it appears to have housed several disorganized Celtiberian groups. The city would have been founded in roughly 179 B.C. according to references in later writings. The foundation of this city marks the end of the Celtiberian civilization and the consolidation of Roman influence in the area. Graccuris would prove to be situated in the middle of a region that would be hotly contested between the Celtiberians and Vascons. The area roughly corresponds to the modern Ebro River Valley. Tiberius Sempronius Graccus was probably responsible for the majority of the treaties signed with the two groups. The treaties generally established a tribute from the surrounding cities to be paid in silver or other products of the earth. Each city had to supply a predetermined amount of men for the army, and only a select few cities had the right to issue currency.

Yet the inhabitants of cities subdued by force were almost never tribute-paying subjects: when they offered resistance to the Romans and were defeated, they were sold as slaves. Those who surrendered before an outright conquest were recognized as citizens of their respective cities were denied Roman citizenship.

When cities subjugated themselves freely, the inhabitants became citizens, and the cities retained their municipal autonomy and at times, were exempt from taxes.

The proconsuls (also called pretores or propretores), that is, the provincial governors, adopted the custom of making themselves rich at their subjects' expense. Forced gifts and abuses were the norm. During their excursions, the proconsul and other functionaries were to be housed for free; at times they would confiscate a home. The proconsul would impose low prices on provisions of grain, for their own needs and those of the functionaries and their families, and at times also for their soldiers.

The resulting complaints became so strong that the Roman Senate, after hearing from an embassy of provincial Hispanics, released in 171 BC some laws of control: Tributes could not be collected by means of the military; cereal payments were permissible but proconsuls could not gather more than a fifth of the harvest; the proconsul was prohibited to fix the prices of grains on his own; petitions in support of popular holidays in Rome were limited; and the contribution of contingents for the army was maintained. However, like the judgement of the proconsuls that had committed abuses corresponding to the Senate through the proconsul of the city, it was rare that a proconsul was judged.

[edit] Viriathus and the Lusitanian Rebellion

Main article: Lusitanian War

Lusitania was probably the area of the peninsula that resisted the Roman invasion for the longest time. Until the year 155 BC, the Lusitanian chief Punicus made raids into the part of Lusitania controlled by Rome, ending with the twenty-year peace made by the former praetor Sempronius Gracchus. Punicus obtained an important victory against the praetors Manilius and Calpurnius, inflicting 6,000 casualties.

After the death of Punicus, Caisaros took charge of the fight against Rome, vanquishing the Roman troops again in 153 BC, revealing his banner in the battle, which triumphantly showed to the rest of the Iberian peoples how to display the vulnerability of Rome. At the time, the Vetones and Celtiberians had united in resistance, leaving the situation for Rome in this area of Hispania somewhat precarious. Lusitanians, Vetones and Celtiberians raided the Mediterranean coasts, while in order to secure their position on the Peninsula, they were deployed to North Africa. It was in this year that two new consuls arrived in Hispania, Quintus Fulvius Nobilior and Lucius Mummius. The urgency of restoring dominion over Hispania made the two consuls enter into battle within two and a half months. The Lusitanians sent to Africa were defeated at Okile (modern Arcila in Morocco) by Mummius, who forced them to accept a peace treaty. For his part, the consul Serbius Sulpicius Galba made a peace treaty with three of the Lusitanian tribes, and then, pretending to be a friend, killed the youth and sold the rest of the people to Gaul.

Nobilior was replaced in the following year (152 BC) by Marcus Claudius Marcellus (consul 166 BC). He in turn was succeeded in 150 BC by Lucius Lucullus who was distinguished by his cruelty and infamy.

In 147 BC a new Lusitanian leader named Viriathus rebelled against the Roman forces. He had fled from Serbius Sulpicius Galba three years earlier, and, reuniting the Lusitanian tribes again, Viriathus began a guerrilla war that fiercely struck the enemy without giving open battle. He commanded many campaigns and arrived with his troops at the Murcian coasts. His numerous victories and the humiliation he inflicted upon the Romans made him worthy of the permanent place he holds in Portuguese and Spanish memory as a revered hero who fought without respite. Viriathus was assassinated about 139 BC by Audax, Ditalcus and Minurus, probably paid off by the Roman General Marcus Popillius Lenas. With his death, the organized Lusitanian resistance did not disappear but Rome continued to expand into the region.

[edit] The war against the Celtiberian peoples

Between 135 and 132 BC, Consul Decimus Junius Brutus brought about an expedition to Gallaecia (north of Portugal and Galicia). Almost simultaneously (133 BC) the Celtiberian city Numantia, the last bastion of the Celtiberians, was destroyed. This was the culminating point of the war between the Celtiberians and the Romans between 143 BC and 133 BC; the Celtiberian city had been taken by Publius Cornelius Scipio Æmilianus, when the opportunity was too much to resist. The Celtiberian chiefs committed suicide with their families and the rest of the population was sold into slavery. The city was razed.

For more than a century the Vascones and Celtiberians fought over the rich land of the Ebro River Valley. The Celtiberian Calagurris, today Calahorra, probably carried the weight of the struggle, helped by tribal alliances; the Vascones likely had a fairly important settlement situated on the other side of the Ebro, in an area across from Calagurris, which also gained the support of Vascones from other places. The Celtiberians surely shouldered most of the load in the conflict destroying the Vascone city and occupying lands on the other side of the Ebro.

But the so-called "Celtiberians" were enemies of Rome, and the Basques were Rome's allies (which was reasonable for strategic reasons). When Calagurris was destroyed by the Romans it was repopulated with Basques. It was probably the first Basque city on the other side of the river, destroyed before by the Celtiberians (who had occupied their lands north of the Ebro), and by other Basques.

In 123 BC the Romans occupied the Balearic Islands, establishing a settlement there of three thousand Latin-speaking Hispanics. The fact that they were able to do this gives an impression of the profound cultural influence Rome projected on the Peninsula in just a century.


[edit] The civil wars

Hispania was party to the political and military disputes of the Roman Republic's final years when Quintus Sertorius clashed with the aristrocatic party headed by Sulla in 83 BC. Upon losing in Italy, Quintus took refuge in Hispania continuing the war against the Roman government and establishing a complete government system in Huesca. Finally it was Pompey who, after several raid attempts in Hispania, finished with Quintus Sertorius more by using political intrigue than military force. Subsequently it was peninsular support for Pompey that caused a new war in Hispania between his followers and the followers of Julius Caesar. This war ended in 49 BC with Julius Caesar's victory.

[edit] Julius Caesar and the war against Pompey

Julius Caesar invaded Hispania as part of his war against Pompey for control of Rome. Pompey fled to Greece and Caesar aimed to eliminate his base of support in the west and isolate him from the rest of the Empire. His forces clashed with those of Pompey's supporters at the Battle of Ilerda (Lerida) achieving a victory that opened the ports of the Peninsula. Finally, Pompey's forces were defeated at the Munda in 45 BC. One year later, Caesar was assassinated at the doors of the Roman Senate and his great-nephew Gaius Julius Caesar Octavianus, later named Augustus, was named consul after a brief war against Mark Antony, and later gained power that finally transformed the crumbling Roman Republic into the Roman Empire.

[edit] Cantabrian Wars

Main article: Cantabrian Wars

During the reign of Caesar Augustus, Rome was obliged to maintain a bloody conflict against the Cantabrian tribes, a warlike people who presented fierce resistance to Roman domination. The Emperor himself moved to Segisama, modern Sasamon, (Burgos), to supervise the campaign personally. With the end of this war, the long years of civil wars and wars of conquest ended in the territories of the Iberian Peninsula, beginning a long era of political and economic stability in Hispania.

[edit] References

Search Wikimedia Commons Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Roman Hispania

[edit] Bibliography

Miguel de Cervantes Virtual Library
Other online publications
Printed sources
  • España y los españoles hace dos mil años (según la Geografía de Estrabón) de Antonio Gª y Bellido. Colección Austral de Espasa Calpe S.A., Madrid 1945. ISBN 84-239-7203-8
  • Las artes y los pueblos de la España primitiva de José Camón Aznar (catedrático de la Universidad de Madrid. Editorial Espasa Calpe, S.A. Madrid, 1954
  • Diccionario de los Íberos. Pellón Olagorta, Ramón. Espasa Calpe S.A. Madrid 2001. ISBN 84-239-2290-1
  • Geografía histórica española de Amando Melón. Editorial Volvntad, S.A., Tomo primero, Vol. I-Serie E. Madrid 1928
  • Historia de España y de la civilización española. Rafael Altamira y Crevea. Tomo I. Barcelona, 1900. ISBN 84-8432-245-9
  • Historia ilustrada de España. Antonio Urbieto Arteta. Volumen II. Editorial Debate, Madrid 1994. ISBN 84-8306-008-6
  • Historia de España. España romana, I. Bosch Gimpera, Aguado Bleye, José Ferrandis. Obra dirigida por Ramón Menéndez Pidal. Editorial Espasa-Calpe S.A., Madrid 1935
  • Arte Hispalense, nº21: Pinturas romanas en Sevilla. Abad Casal, Lorenzo. Publicaciones de la Exma. Diputación Provincial de Sevilla. ISBN 84-500-3309-8
  • El mosaico romano en Hispania : crónica ilustrada de una sociedad. Tarrats Bou, F. Alfafar : Global Edition - Contents, S.A. ISBN 84-933702-1-5 . Libro declarado «de interés turístico nacional», [1] (enlace a BOE nº 44, 21 de febrero de 2005, formato PDF)

[edit] External links

Miguel de Cervantes Virtual Library
Recursos universitarios
Other links

Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_conquest_of_Hispania"

 

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First Celtiberian War

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The First Celtiberian (or Spanish) War was the first of a series of three wars known as the Celtiberian Wars. It was fought between the advancing legions of the Roman Republic and the Celtiberian tribes of Hispania Citerior from 181 to 179 BC.

In 181, several tribes along the Ebro, especially the Lusones, rebelled against Roman rule. Appian cites their reason as a lack of land on which to live. They were quickly put down by the consul Quintus Fulvius Flaccus and scattered. Some fled to Complega, then a newly fortified city, from which they made demands on the Roman general, but after his approach they fled.

In 179, Flaccus was succeeded by Tiberius Sempronius Gracchus. Gracchus quickly went to the rescue of the besieged city of Caravis and then took the city of Complega. He divied up the land among the poor and signed treaties with all of the tribes. His success in establishing peace made him much admired in both Hispania and Rome, where he arrived to a triumph.

In the latter year, war also broke out in Hispania Ulterior between the Romans and the Lusitani.

[edit] Sources


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Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_Celtiberian_War"


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Lusitanian War

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The Lusitanian War, called the Purinos Polemos (meaning Fiery War),[1] was a war of resistance fought between the advancing legions of the Roman Republic and the Lusitani tribes of Hispania Ulterior from 155 to 139 BC. The Lusitani revolted on two separate occasions (155 and again 146 BC) and were pacified. In 154, a long war in Hispania Citerior known as the Numantine War was begun by the Celtiberians. It lasted until 133 and is an important event in the integration of what would become Portugal into the Roman and Latin-speaking world.

In 194, war first broke out in between the Romans and the Lusitani, who were an autonomous people.[2] By 179, the Romans had mostly succeeded in pacifying the region signing a peace treaty. In 155, a major revolt was reignited under the leadership of Punicus who allied with the Vettones. Caesarus succeeded after Punicus death. Another warlord, Caucenus, made war against the Romans in the region south of Tagus down to North Africa.

The praetor Servius Sulpicius Galba and the proconsul Lucius Licinius Lucullus arrived in 151 and began the process of subduing the local population. Galba betrayed the Lusitani leaders he had invited to peace talks and had them killed in 150, thus ending the first phase of the war.

In 146, the Lusitani found a new leader. This leader, named Viriathus, was to gain renown throughout the Roman world as a guerilla fighter. In the words of Theodor Mommsen, "It seemed as if, in that thoroughly prosaic age, one of the Homeric heroes had reappeared." In 145, the general Quintus Fabius Maximus Aemilianus campaigned successfully against the Lusitani, but failed in his attempts to arrest Viriathus. In 143, Viriathus formed a league against Rome with several Celtic tribes.

Sextus Junius Brutus, while following Viriathus, found women warrior defending the Lusitanian towns alongside with men.[3]

In 139, Viriathus was finally killed in his sleep by three of his companions, Audax, Ditalcus and Minurus, who had been sent as emissaries to the Romans and were bribed by Marcus Popillius Laenas. The Roman general Servilius Caepio had them executed, however, declaring "Rome does not pay traitors."

[edit] Notes

  1. ^ This is the name for it in Polybius and Appian.
  2. ^ Appian's History of Rome
  3. ^ The Foreign Wars (ed. Horace White)

[edit] Sources

[edit] See also



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Numantine War

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 This article includes a list of references, related reading or external links, but its sources remain unclear because it lacks inline citations. Please improve this article by introducing more precise citations where appropriate. (April 2009)

The Numantine War[1] (from Bellum Numantinum in Appian's Roman History) was the last conflict of the Celtiberian Wars fought by the Romans to subdue those people along the Ebro. It was a twenty year long conflict between the Celtiberian tribes of Hispania Citerior and the Roman government. It began in 154 BC as a revolt of the Celtiberians of Numantia on the Douro. The first phase of the war ended in 151, but, in 143, war flared up again with a new insurrection in Numantia.

The first war was fought contemporaneously with the Lusitanian War in Hispania Ulterior. The Lusitani were subdued by Sulpicius Galba, who betrayed their surrender and executed their leading men, and the Arevaci of Hispania Citerior continued the war and allied with the Lusitani leader Viriathus.

After open war was reinvigorated in 143, Rome sent a series of generals to the Iberian peninsula to deal with the Numantines. In that year, Quintus Caecilius Metellus Macedonicus tried and failed to take the city by siege, but subjugated all the other tribes of the Arevaci. His successor, Quintus Pompeius, was inept and suffered severe defeats at their hands, so he secretly negotiated a peace with the city abiding by the previous treaty. Yet in 138 a new general arrived, Marcus Pompillius Laenas, and when the Numantine envoys came to finish their obligations of the peace treaty, Pompeius disavowed negotiating any such peace. The matter was referred to the Senate for a judgment. Rome decided to ignore Pompeius' peace and sent Gaius Hostilius Mancinus to continue the war in 136, who assaulted the city and was repulsed several times before being routed and encircled, and so forced to accept a treaty. The Senate did not ratify his treaty either. His successors Lucius Furius Philus and Gaius Calpurnius Piso avoided conflict with the Numantines.

In 134 BC, the Consul Scipio Aemilianus was sent to Hispania Citerior to end the war. He recruited 20,000 men and 40,000 allies, including Numidian cavalry under Jugurtha. Scipio built a ring of seven fortresses around Numantia itself before beginning the siege proper. After suffering pestilence and famine, most of the surviving Numantines committed suicide rather than surrender to Rome. The great Roman victory over Numantia ushered in an era of lasting peace in Hispania until the Sertorian War over half a century later.

[edit] Notes

  1. ^ The term Numantine War can refer to the whole conflict lasting from 154 to 133 or to just the latter part, from 143 to 133. Thus, the two conflicts are sometimes called the Numantine Wars (plural) and subdivided into the First and Second Numantine War. The two are also called the Second and Third Celtiberian (or Spanish) Wars.

[edit] Sources


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Quintus Sertorius

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Quintus Sertorius (123 BC-72 BC) was a Roman statesman and general, born in Nursia, in Sabine territory, around 124 BC.

After acquiring some reputation in Rome as a jurist and an orator, he began a military career. His first recorded campaign was under Quintus Servilius Caepio at the Battle of Arausio, where he showed unusual courage. Serving under Gaius Marius in 102 BC, Sertorius succeeded in spying on the wandering German tribes that had defeated Caepio. After this success, he fought at the great Battle of Aquae Sextiae (now Aix-en-Provence, France) in which the Teutones were decisively defeated. In 97 BC, he served in Hispania (the Iberian Peninsula, comprising modern Spain and Portugal) as a military tribune under Titus Didius, winning the Grass Crown.

In 91 he was quaestor in Cisalpine Gaul, where he was in charge of recruiting and training legions for the Social War. During this time he sustained a wound that cost him the use of one of his eyes. Upon his return to Rome he ran for tribune, but Lucius Cornelius Sulla thwarted his efforts (for reasons unknown), causing Sertorius to oppose him.

After Sulla forced Marius into exile, and Sulla left Rome to fight Mithridates, violence erupted between the Optimates, led by the consul Gnaeus Octavius, and the Populares, led by the consul Lucius Cornelius Cinna. Sertorius now declared for Cinna and the Populares. Though he had a very bad opinion of Marius, he consented to Marius' return upon understanding that Marius came at Cinna's request and not of his own accord. After Octavius surrendered Rome to the forces of Marius, Cinna, and Sertorius in 87, Sertorius abstained from the proscriptions his fellow commanders engaged in. Sertorius went so far as to rebuke Marius, and move Cinna to moderation, while annihilating Marius' slave army that had partaken in his atrocities.

[edit] Revolt in Hispania

Sertorius and the Example of the Horses, after Hans Holbein the Younger. The drawing illustrates the example Sertorius gave to his followers that in the same way a horse's tail can be picked out hair by hair but not pulled out all at once, so smaller forces could defeat the Roman armies.[1]

On Sulla's return from the East in 83, and following the subsequent collapse of the Populares power, Sertorius retreated to Hispania as proconsul, representing the Populares. The Roman officials in Hispania did not recognize his authority, but Sertorius assumed control as he had an army. Sertorius sought to hold Hispania by sending an army, under Julius Salinator, to fortify the pass through the Pyrenees; however, Sulla's forces, under the command of Gaius Annius, broke through after Salinator was killed by treachery.

Having been obliged to withdraw to North Africa, he carried on a campaign in Mauretania, in which he defeated one of Sulla's generals and captured Tingis (Tangier). This success won him the fame and admiration of the people of Hispania, particularly that of the Lusitanians in the west (in modern Portugal), whom Roman generals and proconsuls of Sulla's party had plundered and oppressed. The Lusitanians then offered Sertorius to be their general, and when arriving to their lands, bringing additional forces from Africa, he held supreme authority and started invading neighbouring territory.

Brave, noble, and gifted with eloquence, Sertorius was just the man to impress them favourably, and the native warriors, whom he organized, spoke of him as the "new Hannibal." His skill as a general was extraordinary, as he repeatedly defeated forces many times his own size. Many Roman refugees and deserters joined him, and with these and his Hispanian volunteers he completely defeated several of Sulla's generals (Fufidius, Lucius Domitius and Thoranius) and drove Quintus Caecilius Metellus Pius, who had been specifically sent against him from Rome, out of Lusitania, or Hispania Ulterior as the Romans called it at the time.

Sertorius owed some of his success to his prodigious ability as a statesman. His goal was to build a stable government in Hispania with the consent and co-operation of the people, whom he wished to civilize along the lines of the Roman model. He established a senate of 300 members, drawn from Roman emigrants (probably including some from the highest nobles of Hispania) and kept a Hispanian bodyguard. For the children of the chief native families he provided a school at Osca (Huesca), where they received a Roman education and even adopted the dress and education of Roman youths, following the Roman practice of taking hostages. Late in his campaign, a revolt of the native people arose and Sertorius killed several of the children that he had sent to school at Osca, and sold many others into slavery.[2]

Although he was strict and severe with his soldiers, he was particularly considerate to the people in general, and made their burdens as light as possible. It seems clear that he had a peculiar gift for evoking the enthusiasm of the native tribes, and we can understand well how he was able to use the famous white fawn, a present from one of the natives and was supposed to communicate to him the advice of the goddess Diana, to his advantage.

For six years he held sway over Hispania. In 77 he was joined by Marcus Perpenna Vento from Rome, with a following of Roman nobles and a sizeable Roman army. Also that year, Pompey was sent to help Metellus conquer Hispania and finish Sertorius off. Contemptuously calling Pompey Sulla's pupil, Sertorius proved himself more than a match for his adversaries: he razed Lauron, a city allied to Rome, after a battle in which Pompey's forces were ambushed and defeated; he nearly captured Pompey at the battle of Sucro when Pompey decided to fight Sertorius without waiting for Metellus Pius; and Sertorius utterly defeated the united forces of Metellus and Pompey on one occasion near Saguntum. Pompey wrote to Rome for reinforcements, without which, he said, he and Metellus Pius would be driven out of Hispania.

Sertorius was in league with the Cilician pirates, who had bases all across the Mediterranean, was negotiating with the formidable Mithridates VI of Pontus, and was in communication with the insurgent slaves in Italy. But due to jealousies among the Roman officers who served under him and the Hispanians of higher rank who began to weaken his influence with the Lusitani tribes, and though he won victories to the last, he was assassinated at a banquet at Perpenna Vento's instigation in 72 BC. Appian notes Sulla's consistent elimination of enemy commanders by means of treachery. At the time of his death, he was on the verge of successfully establishing an independent Roman republic in Hispania, which crumbled with the renewed onslaught of Pompey and Metellus, who crushed Perpenna's army and eliminated the remaining opposition.

See Plutarch's lives of Sertorius and Pompey; Appian, Bell. civ. and Hispanica; the fragments of Sallust; Dio Cassius xxxvi.

[edit] See also

[edit] References

  1. ^ Christian Müller in Hans Holbein the Younger: The Basel Years, 1515–1532, Christian Müller; Stephan Kemperdick; Maryan Ainsworth; et al, Munich: Prestel, 2006, ISBN 9783791335803, pp. 263–64.
  2. ^ Sertorius by Plutarch



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Cantabrian Wars

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 This article does not cite any references or sources. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (April 2008)
Astur-Cantabrian Wars

Territories of the Iberian Peninsula where the Astur-Cantabrian Wars took place
Date 29 - 19 BC
Location modern Cantabria, Asturias and León
Result Decisive Roman victory
Territorial
changes		 Cantabria and Asturias fell under Roman control as part of Hispania
Belligerents
Cantabri,
Astures		 Roman Empire
Commanders
Corocotta (Cantabri)
Gausón (Astures)		 Caesar Augustus,
Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa
Strength
70,000-100,000
(Based on pop. estimate)		 70,000-80,000
Casualties and losses
All male Cantabri and Astures of "military age" Unknown
The casualties are unusual in that both the Roman army did not take prisoners, nor did the Cantabri or Astures allow themselves to be taken alive as slaves. The result was a massive slaughter of Cantabri and Astures at the end of the conflict.

The Cantabrian Wars or Astur-Cantabrian Wars (29 BC-19 BC) occurred during the Roman conquest of the provinces of Cantabria, Asturias and León. They were the final stage of the conquest of Hispania.

Contents

[hide]

[edit] Antecedents

The Cantabri first appear in history in earlier wars in Iberia, where they served as mercenaries on various sides. In this way, in the years preceding the wars in Cantabria and Asturias, the Roman military became familiar with the warlike characteristics of the peoples of northern Hispania. There are accounts, for instance, of Cantabrians in the army of Hannibal during the Second Punic War. Additionally, there is evidence that they fought alongside the Vaccaei in 151 BC, and helped break the Roman siege of Numantia. It is also believed that there were Cantabrian troops present in the Sertorian Wars. According to Julius Caesar's own testimony, there were Cantabrians at the battle of Ilerda in 49 BC.

With all these antecedents, the Cantabrians began to be known throughout the Roman Empire. Roman troops even lost one of their standards to them, something inexplicable and humiliating in those days. Such were the disasters and the embarrassments that, although the Roman historians justified the campaigns as retribution for Cantabrian incursions in the Roman-controlled Meseta Central, there must have been a certain lust after Asturian gold and Cantabrian iron as well. Finally, in 26 BC, the Emperor himself, Caesar Augustus, went to Hispania, establishing his base in Segisama (Burgos)

[edit] Armies and strategies

According to the Roman historian Dio Cassius, the tactics of the Cantabri and Astures were of guerrilla warfare, avoiding direct attacks on the Roman forces because of their inferior numbers. Their better knowledge of the difficult and mountainous terrain allowed them to conduct quick surprise strikes with ranged weapons, with ambushes followed by quick retreats, causing great damage to the Roman columns and supply lines.

According to what remains from representations on coins and steles, the Cantabri were skilled in light arms. Lucan referred to this when he wrote, Cantaber exiguis et longis Teutonus armis (The Cantabrian with his short weapons and the Teuton with his long ones). They went equipped with small swords, daggers, small spears or javelins, lances, round or oval shields of wood, and leather chest protection. They also used a weapon like the Iberian falcata, and the bipinnis, a type of double-headed axe particular to the peoples of Northern Hispania. There is no proof of their use of archery or slings, although it is quite probable that they knew and used them.

The map shows the borders of the Roman Cantabria during the Cantabrian Wars, in relationship to today's Cantabria, along with the tribes that lived there, the neighboring peoples, towns and geographical features, according to classical sources.

The Cantabri were able at the time to ride horses, as reflected in the fact that some of their cavalry tactics would be adopted by the Roman army. Examples include the 'circulus cantabricus', a semicircular formation, and the 'cantabricus impetus', a massive frontal attack against enemy lines with the goal of breaching them, as described by Flavius Arrianus.

The quality of the Cantabrian enemy was such that Augustus was obliged to deploy a number of legions in the conflict:

to which he added various auxiliary troops:

  • Ala II Gallorum,
  • Cohors II Gallorum,
  • Ala II Thracum Victrix Civium Romanorum,
  • Cohors IV Thracum Aequitata,
  • Ala Parthorum
  • Ala Augusta

The Roman navy was also sent to the Cantabrian coast from Gallia Aquitania. It was an important factor in the conflict's resolution, since it completed the encirclement of the Cantabri begun by the ground forces. It is calculated that, in total, the Roman Army deployed 70,000 men, although these calculations vary amongst authors, because they used a 5,000 men per legion base. In reality, the figure should surpass 80,000 men counting auxiliaries since, through the reforms of Gaius Marius, the legion had about 6,000 soldiers. However, in Augustus' time, although a legion was officially composed of 6,200 men, for various reasons, the number usually oscillated between 5,000 and 8,000.

[edit] Bellum Asturicum

Roman campaigns versus the Cantabri and the Astures      26 BC campaign      25 BC campaign      D.J. Brutus campaign      Cesar arrival

The Astures joined the Cantabri in a common defense. In the spring of 25 BC, there were three Roman legions established near the Astura River (modern Esla River), with troops from the Tarraconensis. According to contemporary Roman historian Florus in his Epitome of Roman History [1], the armies of the Astures Transmontani came down from their snow-covered mountains (which is perfectly possible in the Picos de Europa in spring) and settled near the Astura River, getting ready to take the three Roman winter camps.

However, the brigaecini (Astures Cismontani) peoples of the Benavente region informed Augustus on their intentions. Augustus gave Brigantum, the camp of Augustan Asturica, to the Brigaeci as a reward for their help. Additionally, he shared out land in the plains to the allies. His general Carisius [2] attacked the Astur armies (probably commanded by Gauso), forcing them to take refuge in the fortified city of Lancia, the most important Astures Cismontani fort according to Florus.

Once Lancia was besieged, the Astur armies took refuge in the Mons Medullius (some scholars locate it at Las Médulas basing their opinions on Florus who specifically names the site in his history of Rome). The Roman legions besieged the mountain, building a fifteen-mile-long moat and ditch. According to Orosius, the Astur soldiers preferred to commit suicide with their own weapons and yew tree poison rather than surrender.

A year after his arrival, Augustus had to retire to Tarragona, presumably because of sickness. The conflict, however, lasted more than ten years (it serves as a reference that the Roman Empire conquered all of Gallaecia in less than seven years). It was one of only two campaigns directed personally by Augustus against barbarians, the other being the one against the Illyrians from 35 BC to 33 BC.

[edit] End of the conflict

In this conflict, unusually, the Romans chose not to take prisoners. Moreover, there was a tradition among the Astures of preferring suicide to slavery. They did this by sword, by fire, or, primarily, by poisoning themselves with potions made for the purpose. According to Silius Italicus they used a concoction made from the seeds of the yew tree, a plant with mythic significance for the Celts. Strabo said that they belittled death and pain, to the point of singing hymns of victory while being crucified. For them, according to Strabo, to die as soldiers and free men was a victory.

The major fighting was completed in 19 BC, although there were minor rebellions until 16 BC. Rome, as was their practice with other territories, began to impose their reforms. Despite the mass deaths, local resistance was such that the Romans had to station two legions (X Gemina and IIII Macedonica) there for seventy more years.

Through the Cantabrian War and the surrender of the Cantabri and Astures to Rome, the Roman legions adopted from them the solar symbol of twin crosses and lunar symbols, such as the Cantabri lábaro.[citation needed] They would still be carrying this standard 300 years later. The Roman army also copied from the Cantabri the cavalry tactics circulus cantabricus and cantabricus impetus as already mentioned.

[edit] Bibliography

  • Los Cántabros antes de Roma, 2ª edición: Dr. Eduardo Peralta Labrador, Real Academia de la Historia. (2003)
  • Las Guerras Cántabras: Angel Ocejo Herrero y vv.aa.
  • Estelas Cántabras: Símbolos de un pueblo: Juan Carlos Cabria Gutiérrez, editorial Brenes XXI.
  • Onomástica de Cantabria - Los Nombres de Persona Cántabros: Jesús J. Maroñas.
  • Roma y la Conquista del Norte Peninsular: Carmen Fernández Ochoa, Historia de Asturias - La Nueva España.
  • The Conquest of North-West Spain. Legio VII Gemina: Ronald Syme. 1970
  • Epitome of Roman Wars. XXXIII. Bellum Cantabricum et Asturicum.[3]: Florus

[edit] External links

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